氯胺酮

![]() |
![]() | |||
| |||
臨床數據 | |||
---|---|---|---|
商品名 | Ketalar及其他 | ||
其他名稱 | CI-581; CL-369; CM-52372-2[1] | ||
AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph | ||
核准狀況 | |||
懷孕分級 | |||
成癮性 | 中等至高[3][4] | ||
給藥途徑 | 任何途徑[5][6][7][8] | ||
藥物類別 | NMDA受體拮抗劑,全身麻醉藥,離解劑,鎮痛藥,抗憂鬱藥 | ||
ATC碼 | |||
法律規範狀態 | |||
法律規範 |
| ||
藥物動力學數據 | |||
生物利用度 | |||
血漿蛋白結合率 | 23–47%[12] | ||
藥物代謝 | 肝臟, 小腸 (口服): | ||
代謝產物 | |||
藥效起始時間 | |||
生物半衰期 | |||
作用時間 | |||
排泄途徑 | |||
識別資訊 | |||
| |||
CAS編號 | 6740-88-1(
![]() 1867-66-9 ![]() | ||
PubChem CID | |||
IUPHAR/BPS | |||
DrugBank | |||
ChemSpider | |||
UNII | |||
KEGG | |||
ChEBI | |||
ChEMBL | |||
CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |||
ECHA InfoCard | 100.027.095 | ||
化學資訊 | |||
化學式 | C13H16ClNO | ||
摩爾質量 | 237.73 g·mol−1 | ||
3D模型(JSmol) | |||
手性 | 外消旋體:[13]
| ||
熔點 | 92[18] °C(198 °F) | ||
| |||
|
氯胺酮(INN:ketamine,又譯為愷他命、克他明,或是口語稱K他命) 是一種離解性麻醉藥,醫療上常用於麻醉的誘導和維持,也可用於治療憂鬱症和作疼痛管理。[19]此藥物主要的精神活性作用源於它所具有的NMDA受體拮抗劑的功能。[20]
氯胺酮是一種離解性麻醉劑,在麻醉劑量下能產生鎮痛、鎮靜和失憶等效果,[21]同時能維持呼吸和氣道反射,刺激心臟功能、提高血壓以及適度擴張支氣管。而在較低的亞麻醉劑量下,它則被視為一種具有前景,用於治療疼痛和難治性憂鬱症的選項。[22]
氯胺酮因其致幻和離解特性,也被濫用,作為娛樂性用藥。[23]作娛樂性用的氯胺酮有結晶粉末和液體兩種形式,常被使用者稱為"Special K"或"K"(另外還有K仔、K粉、克他命、小姐等俗稱)。長期重複使用的後果尚不清楚,而成為目前研究的重點。[24][25][26]有報告顯示長期高劑量作娛樂性使用可能導致肝臟和泌尿系統毒性。[27]
氯胺酮於1962年首次成功合成,當初的目的是從苯環己哌啶開發出一種更安全且致幻作用更少的麻醉劑。[28][29]美國於1970年批准其作醫療用途。[19]氯胺酮在獸醫學中被廣泛應用,並在越南戰爭期間大量用於外科麻醉。[30]它已名列世界衛生組織基本藥物標準清單之中,[31]市場上有其通用名藥物(學名藥)販售。[32]
醫療用途
[編輯]麻醉
[編輯]氯胺酮的麻醉應用與其特性相符。它在不需肌肉鬆弛的短期手術中是首選藥物。[33]
疼痛
[編輯]氯胺酮輸注在臨床上用於急診的急性疼痛管理,以及圍術期針對頑固性疼痛患者的治療。其使用劑量低於麻醉所需,一般稱為亞麻醉劑量。研究顯示氯胺酮可作為嗎啡的輔助藥物,或是單獨使用,有助於減少術後的嗎啡用量以降低疼痛感,並減輕噁心和嘔吐。特別是對於預計術後會劇烈疼痛,或對類阿片藥物產生耐受性的患者,氯胺酮可帶來顯著的助益。[34][35]
憂鬱症
[編輯]氯胺酮是一種速效抗憂鬱藥,但效果短暫。[36]靜脈注射氯胺酮以治療難治型憂鬱症可在4小時內將情緒改善,並在24小時達到效力高峰。[22][24]單次靜脈注射氯胺酮已被證明在給藥後4.5小時即產生超過60%的反應率(24小時後仍有持續效果),7天後仍有超過40%的反應率。[37]雖然只有少數試點研究,試圖確定最佳劑量,但越來越多的證據顯示在40分鐘內注射0.5毫克/公斤的劑量可產生最佳效果。[38]氯胺酮的抗憂鬱效果在7天後減弱,大多數人會在10天內復發。然而對於有顯著少數的患者,改善作用可持續30天或是更長。[24][25][37][39]
癲癇發作
[編輯]氯胺酮曾被考慮作為常規治療無效癲癇重積狀態的治療選項。[40]然而,目前支持此用途的證據僅限於個別研究案例,尚缺乏嚴謹的隨機對照試驗結果。[41][42]
哮喘
[編輯]由於氯胺酮具有潛在的支氣管擴張作用,[43]有研究指出它可能可用於治療對標準療法沒有反應的兒童嚴重急性哮喘。[43]不過一項由考科藍合作組織於2012年發表的評估表示,雖然相關研究所提的不良反應不多,但現有的有限證據並未顯現明確的臨床益處。[43]
禁忌症
[編輯]- 嚴重的心血管疾病,如不穩定型心絞痛或控制不良的高血壓
- 顱內壓或眼壓升高(然而這些仍存在爭議,最近的研究表明可能並非如此)[34]
- 控制不良的思覺失調
- 嚴重的肝臟疾病,如肝硬化
- 懷孕
- 處於物質使用障礙狀態(連續進行氯胺酮注射中)
- 年齡小於3個月[10]
不良反應
[編輯]
使用麻醉劑量的氯胺酮後,在甦醒期間,有10%至20%的成人,和1%至2%的兒童[10]可能會出現不良的精神反應,其表現從夢境和情緒低落到幻覺和甦醒期譫妄不等。[45]研究顯示,併用拉莫三嗪[46]和尼莫地平[47]有助於減輕這些精神病樣的副作用,而預先施用苯二氮䓬類藥物或丙泊酚也能有效對抗此類不良反應。[45][48]
當使用較低的亞麻醉劑量時,精神方面的副作用則更為突出。最常見的精神副作用包括離解感、視覺扭曲和感覺減退。此外,說話困難、意識混亂、欣快感、嗜睡以及注意力不集中等情況也相當常見(發生率為20%至50%)。約有6%至10%的人會經歷幻覺。常見(發生率超過10%)的非精神副作用則有頭暈、視力模糊、口乾、高血壓、噁心、體溫升高或降低以及皮膚潮紅。所有這些不良反應在注射結束時最為明顯,但在40分鐘後會顯著減輕,並在注射完成後4小時內完全消退。[49]
泌尿系統和肝臟毒性
[編輯]長期且大量使用氯胺酮主要會對人體泌尿系統造成毒性,約有20%至30%的此類使用者會出現與膀胱相關的徵狀。[29][50]
氯胺酮的肝臟毒性通常與較高的使用劑量和重複使用有關。針對長期高劑量使用氯胺酮者的研究顯示,肝臟損傷的發生率約為10%。[51]此外,也有案例報告,指出在慢性疼痛的氯胺酮治療過程中會觀察到肝酶升高的現象。[52]長期濫用氯胺酮還可能引發膽絞痛、[53]惡病體質、消化道疾病、肝膽功能障礙以及急性腎損傷等問題。[54]
瀕死經驗
[編輯]如果採用最寬泛的定義,大多數經歷過氯胺酮麻醉,且能記得夢境的患者都會提起瀕死經驗 (NDEs)。[55]氯胺酮具有引發與典型瀕死經驗相似特徵的能力。[56]一項於2019年所做的大型研究,比較藥物體驗的書面報告,發現氯胺酮體驗的記錄與瀕死經驗的記錄之間存在高度相似性,遠高於其他藥物體驗的相似程度。[57]
依賴性和耐受性
[編輯]氯胺酮的依賴性發生率目前尚不明確,但部分長期使用者確實會產生依賴。動物實驗也證實氯胺酮存在被濫用的風險。[23]此外,由於鼻腔吸入後藥效會迅速顯現,而可能會提高其作為娛樂性藥物的吸引力。而藥效持續時間較短,也容易導致使用者會連續並大量使用。即使是醫療上重複使用,氯胺酮的耐受性也會快速發展,而導致需要更高的劑量才能達到原有的效果。部分每日使用的個體在嘗試停用後,曾報告出現焦慮、顫抖、出汗和心悸等藥物戒斷徵狀。[23]研究也發現經常以娛樂為目的而使用氯胺酮的人,可能會出現認知功能下降以及離解感和妄想加劇等問題。[58]
交互作用
[編輯]氯胺酮能增強丙泊酚[59]和咪達唑侖[60]的鎮靜效果。那曲酮可能會加劇低劑量氯胺酮所引起的精神病樣反應,[61]而拉莫三嗪[46]和尼莫地平[47]則能減輕這些反應。在氯胺酮麻醉期間,使用可樂定有助於減少唾液分泌過多、心跳加速和血壓升高等情況,並能降低患者做惡夢的概率。.[62]
臨床經驗顯示,苯二氮䓬類藥物可能會對氯胺酮的抗憂鬱作用產生負面影響。[63]不過,大多數常見的抗憂鬱藥物似乎可與氯胺酮安全合併使用。[63]
藥理學
[編輯]藥效學
[編輯]作用機制
[編輯]氯胺酮是等量S-氯胺酮(esketamine,艾司氯胺酮)和R-氯胺酮(arketamine,阿酮胺)兩種對映異構體的混合物。S-氯胺酮作為NMDA受體孔道阻斷劑的效力遠強於R-氯胺酮的。[11]NMDA受體孔道受阻斷是氯胺酮產生麻醉、鎮痛和精神病樣作用的原因。[20][64]阻止NMDA受體通過,可阻斷脊髓後角神經元的傷害感受性疼痛,而產生鎮痛效果。換言之,氯胺酮的作用是干擾脊髓中的疼痛信號傳遞。[14]
至於氯胺酮如何有效緩解憂鬱症的確切機制仍在研究中,是當前醫學界關注的焦點。由於NMDA受體拮抗作用被認為是氯胺酮抗憂鬱效果的基礎,因此藥界開發出艾司氯胺酮作為一種抗憂鬱藥。[11]
目前認為氯胺酮可能透過多種生化機制以發揮抗憂鬱作用,包括直接影響NMDA受體,以及進一步調節腦源性神經營養因子 (BDNF) 和哺乳動物雷帕黴素靶蛋白等關鍵物質。[65][66]
分子靶點
[編輯]氯胺酮主要通過阻斷NMDA受體的離子通道來發揮藥理作用。NMDA受體是一種離子型穀氨酸受體,也是氯胺酮的主要作用靶點。[67]
濃度與效應之間的關係
[編輯]研究指出,當氯胺酮的血漿濃度達到約100至250奈克/毫升(0.42–1.1微摩爾)時,患者可能會體驗到離解感和精神病樣效應。[20]相較之下,用於治療憂鬱症的靜脈注射氯胺酮的典型劑量較低,其導致的最高血漿濃度範圍在70至200奈克/毫升(0.29–0.84微摩爾)之間。[68]在相似的血漿濃度範圍(70至160奈克/毫升,0.29–0.67微摩爾)內,氯胺酮也展現出鎮痛的效果。[68]
藥物動力學
[編輯]氯胺酮同時具有水溶性和脂溶性,使其能經由多種途徑被人體吸收。靜脈注射的生物利用度定義為100%,肌肉注射的生物利用度稍低,約為93%,[7]硬膜外注射則為77%。[9]雖然皮下注射的生物利用度尚未被精確測量,但一般認為其吸收率較高。[69]在非侵入性給藥方式中,鼻腔給藥的生物利用度最高,達到45-50%,[7][10]而口服給藥的生物利用度則最低,僅為16-20%。[7][10]舌下和直腸給藥的生物利用度則介於兩者之間,大約在25-50%。[7][11][10]

化學特性
[編輯]結構
[編輯]從化學結構來看,氯胺酮屬於芳基環己胺類化合物。此外,氯胺酮還是一種具有手性的分子。
檢測
[編輯]為確認住院病人是否氯胺酮中毒、在藥駕逮捕案件中提供證據,或協助法醫進行死亡調查,可對其血液或血漿中的氯胺酮含量進行定量分析。一般來說,在全身麻醉期間接受治療劑量的患者,血液或血漿中的氯胺酮濃度約為每升0.5至5.0毫克,因藥駕被捕的人,其濃度通常為每升1至2毫克;而急性致命性過量服用者的濃度則可能高達每升3至20毫克。尿液通常是常規藥物使用監測的更適合檢體。此外,檢測到具有藥理活性的代謝物去甲氯胺酮,也有助於證實曾攝入此藥物。[70][71][72]
歷史
[編輯]氯胺酮由賓州立大學克雷格教授研發。於1962年交由派克-戴維斯藥廠(目前為輝瑞的子公司)開發,作為較安全的麻醉藥,以取代當年副作用甚高(如產生幻覺、神經毒性及癲癇發作等)的苯環己哌啶(PCP,"天使塵")。首次廣泛應用是派發予參加越戰的美軍士兵。氯胺酮除麻醉作用外,亦因其鎮痛作用強,直至目前仍受廣泛應用。目前本藥也被獸醫廣泛使用,並在發展中國家作麻醉劑使用。[73]
氯胺酮在1970年代普遍作為精神科藥物及科研對象,直到1978年達到頂峰後,開始有科學家發表服用氯胺酮後的中毒現象報告,當中包括美國醫生及神經科學家約翰·立利等。[74]接近20世紀末,氯胺酮的應用開始變質,而成為狂野派對及其他類似活動裏常用的迷幻藥物。各國開始管制氯胺酮的使用,並將其列為管制藥物。當中包括美國[75]、英國[76]及加拿大[77]、中國等。
氯胺酮的抗憂鬱作用於2000年被意外發現,[78]這一突破被廣泛認為是過去半個多世紀以來在憂鬱症治療領域最為重要的進展。[39][11]這項發現不僅點燃科學界對利用NMDA受體拮抗劑治療憂鬱症的熱情,[79]更根本改變抗憂鬱藥物研究與開發的重心。[80]
研究
[編輯]目前,科學界正積極探索氯胺酮在治療難治性憂鬱症方面的潛在應用。[81][82][83]
此外,一項針對大鼠的研究顯示,在極高的濃度下,氯胺酮展現出與伊維菌素和阿苯達唑相近的驅蟲藥效果。[84]
獸醫用途
[編輯]氯胺酮在獸醫麻醉領域應用廣泛,主要用於貓、[85]狗、[86]兔、大鼠及其他小型動物,以達到麻醉和鎮痛的效果。[87][88]氯胺酮在馬匹麻醉的誘導和維持階段也扮演重要的角色。此外,它也是麻醉囓齒動物常用藥物混合物"囓齒動物雞尾酒"的關鍵成分之一。[89]
參考文獻
[編輯]- ^ Morton IK, Hall JM. Concise Dictionary of Pharmacological Agents: Properties and Synonyms. Springer Science & Business Media. 2012-12-06: 159–. ISBN 978-94-011-4439-1. (原始內容存檔於2017-04-11).
- ^ Ketamine (Ketalar) Use During Pregnancy. Drugs.com. 2019-11-22 [2020-05-18]. (原始內容存檔於2020-06-26).
- ^ Drug Scheduling. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. [2023-12-29]. (原始內容存檔於2024-04-08). Ketamine is listed in Schedule III.
- ^ Huang, MC., Lin, SK. (2020). "Ketamine Abuse: Past and Present". In: Hashimoto, K., Ide, S., Ikeda, K. (eds.) Ketamine. Springer, Singapore. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-2902-3_1.
- ^ Bell RF, Eccleston C, Kalso EA. Ketamine as an adjuvant to opioids for cancer pain (PDF). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. June 2017, 6 (9): CD003351 [2018-09-10]. PMC 6481583
. PMID 28657160. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003351.pub3. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2024-01-12).
- ^ Moyse DW, Kaye AD, Diaz JH, Qadri MY, Lindsay D, Pyati S. Perioperative Ketamine Administration for Thoracotomy Pain. Pain Physician. March 2017, 20 (3): 173–184. PMID 28339431.
- ^ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 Mathew SJ, Zarate Jr CA. Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: The First Decade of Progress. Springer. 2016-11-25: 8–10, 14–22. ISBN 978-3-319-42925-0. (原始內容存檔於2017-09-08).
- ^ Brayfield A (編). Ketamine Hydrochloride: Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. MedicinesComplete. London, UK: Pharmaceutical Press. 2017-01-09 [2017-08-24]. (原始內容存檔於2021-08-28).
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Kintz P. Toxicological Aspects of Drug-Facilitated Crimes. Elsevier Science. 22 March 2014: 87–. ISBN 978-0-12-416969-2. (原始內容存檔於2017-09-08).
- ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Marland S, Ellerton J, Andolfatto G, Strapazzon G, Thomassen O, Brandner B, Weatherall A, Paal P. Ketamine: use in anesthesia. CNS Neurosci Ther. June 2013, 19 (6): 381–9. PMC 6493613
. PMID 23521979. doi:10.1111/cns.12072.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Hashimoto K. Rapid-acting antidepressant ketamine, its metabolites and other candidates: A historical overview and future perspective. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. October 2019, 73 (10): 613–627. PMC 6851782
. PMID 31215725. doi:10.1111/pcn.12902.
- ^ Dayton PG, Stiller RL, Cook DR, Perel JM. The binding of ketamine to plasma proteins: emphasis on human plasma. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1983, 24 (6): 825–31. PMID 6884418. S2CID 807011. doi:10.1007/BF00607095.
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Sinner B, Graf BM. Ketamine. Schüttler J, Schwilden H (編). Modern Anesthetics. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology 182. 2008: 313–33. ISBN 978-3-540-72813-9. PMID 18175098. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74806-9_15.
|issue=
被忽略 (幫助) - ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Quibell R, Prommer EE, Mihalyo M, Twycross R, Wilcock A. Ketamine*. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management (Therapeutic Review) http://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924%2811%2900046-7/fulltext
|url=
缺少標題 (幫助). March 2011, 41 (3): 640–9 [2014-07-28]. PMID 21419322. doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2011.01.001. (原始內容存檔於2018-09-16).
- ^ 15.0 15.1 Chang T, Glazko AJ. Biotransformation and disposition of ketamine. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1974, 12 (2): 157–77. PMID 4603048. S2CID 30723730. doi:10.1097/00004311-197412020-00018.
- ^ Hijazi Y, Boulieu R. Contribution of CYP3A4, CYP2B6, and CYP2C9 isoforms to N-demethylation of ketamine in human liver microsomes. Drug Metabolism and Disposition. July 2002, 30 (7): 853–8. PMID 12065445. S2CID 15787750. doi:10.1124/dmd.30.7.853.
- ^ Rao LK, Flaker AM, Friedel CC, Kharasch ED. Role of Cytochrome P4502B6 Polymorphisms in Ketamine Metabolism and Clearance. Anesthesiology. December 2016, 125 (6): 1103–1112. PMID 27763887. S2CID 41380105. doi:10.1097/ALN.0000000000001392.
- ^ Sass W, Fusari S. Ketamine. Analytical Profiles of Drug Substances 6. Academic Press. 1977: 297–322. ISBN 9780122608063. doi:10.1016/S0099-5428(08)60347-0.
- ^ 19.0 19.1 Sachdeva B, Sachdeva P, Ghosh S, Ahmad F, Sinha JK. Ketamine as a therapeutic agent in major depressive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: Potential medicinal and deleterious effects. Ibrain //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10528797
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). March 2023, 9 (1): 90–101. ISSN 2769-2795. PMC 10528797. PMID 37786516. S2CID 257117630. doi:10.1002/ibra.12094
(英語).
- ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Zanos P, Moaddel R, Morris PJ, Riggs LM, Highland JN, Georgiou P, Pereira EF, Albuquerque EX, Thomas CJ, Zarate CA, Gould TD. Ketamine and Ketamine Metabolite Pharmacology: Insights into Therapeutic Mechanisms. Pharmacol Rev. July 2018, 70 (3): 621–660. PMC 6020109
. PMID 29945898. doi:10.1124/pr.117.015198.
- ^ Green SM, Roback MG, Kennedy RM, Krauss B. Clinical practice guideline for emergency department ketamine dissociative sedation: 2011 update. Annals of Emergency Medicine. May 2011, 57 (5): 449–461. PMID 21256625. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.11.030
.
- ^ 22.0 22.1 Zhang K, Hashimoto K. An update on ketamine and its two enantiomers as rapid-acting antidepressants. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. January 2019, 19 (1): 83–92. PMID 30513009. S2CID 54628949. doi:10.1080/14737175.2019.1554434.
- ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Morgan CJ, Curran HV. Ketamine use: a review. Addiction. January 2012, 107 (1): 27–38. PMID 21777321. S2CID 11064759. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03576.x.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Marcantoni WS, Akoumba BS, Wassef M, Mayrand J, Lai H, Richard-Devantoy S, Beauchamp S. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of intravenous ketamine infusion for treatment resistant depression: January 2009 – January 2019. J Affect Disord. December 2020, 277: 831–841. PMID 33065824. S2CID 223557698. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.007.
- ^ 25.0 25.1 Swainson J, McGirr A, Blier P, Brietzke E, Richard-Devantoy S, Ravindran N, Blier J, Beaulieu S, Frey BN, Kennedy SH, McIntyre RS, Milev RV, Parikh SV, Schaffer A, Taylor VH, Tourjman V, van Ameringen M, Yatham LN, Ravindran AV, Lam RW. The Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Task Force Recommendations for the Use of Racemic Ketamine in Adults with Major Depressive Disorder: Recommandations Du Groupe De Travail Du Réseau Canadien Pour Les Traitements De L'humeur Et De L'anxiété (Canmat) Concernant L'utilisation De La Kétamine Racémique Chez Les Adultes Souffrant De Trouble Dépressif Majeur. Can J Psychiatry. November 2020, 66 (2): 113–125. PMC 7918868
. PMID 33174760. doi:10.1177/0706743720970860.
- ^ Bobo WV, Riva-Posse P, Goes FS, Parikh SV. Next-Step Treatment Considerations for Patients With Treatment-Resistant Depression That Responds to Low-Dose Intravenous Ketamine. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). April 2020, 18 (2): 181–192. PMC 7587874
. PMID 33162856. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20190048.
- ^ Orhurhu VJ, Vashisht R, Claus LE, Cohen SP. Ketamine toxicity. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. April 2022 [2022-08-18]. PMID 31082131. (原始內容存檔於2022-05-16).
- ^ Peltoniemi MA, Hagelberg NM, Olkkola KT, Saari TI. Ketamine: A Review of Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Clinical Pharmacokinetics. September 2016, 55 (9): 1059–77. PMID 27028535. S2CID 5078489. doi:10.1007/s40262-016-0383-6.
- ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Cohen SP, Bhatia A, Buvanendran A, Schwenk ES, Wasan AD, Hurley RW, Viscusi ER, Narouze S, Davis FN, Ritchie EC, Lubenow TR, Hooten WM. Consensus Guidelines on the Use of Intravenous Ketamine Infusions for Chronic Pain From the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, the American Academy of Pain Medicine, and the American Society of Anesthesiologists. Reg Anesth Pain Med. July 2018, 43 (5): 521–546. PMC 6023575
. PMID 29870458. doi:10.1097/AAP.0000000000000808.
- ^ Domino EF. Taming the ketamine tiger. 1965. Anesthesiology. September 2010, 113 (3): 678–84. PMID 20693870. doi:10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181ed09a2
.
- ^ World Health Organization. The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2023. hdl:10665/371090
. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02.
- ^ Ketamine Injection. Drugs.com. [2014-12-01]. (原始內容存檔於2014-12-10).
- ^ Rosenbaum SB, Gupta V, Palacios JL. Ketamine. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. 2020 [2020-03-05]. PMID 29262083. (原始內容存檔於2020-11-12).
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Schwenk ES, Viscusi ER, Buvanendran A, Hurley RW, Wasan AD, Narouze S, Bhatia A, Davis FN, Hooten WM, Cohen SP. Consensus Guidelines on the Use of Intravenous Ketamine Infusions for Acute Pain Management From the American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, the American Academy of Pain Medicine, and the American Society of Anesthesiologists. Reg Anesth Pain Med. July 2018, 43 (5): 456–466. PMC 6023582
. PMID 29870457. doi:10.1097/AAP.0000000000000806.
- ^ Sin B, Ternas T, Motov SM. The use of subdissociative-dose ketamine for acute pain in the emergency department. Academic Emergency Medicine. March 2015, 22 (3): 251–7. PMID 25716117. S2CID 24658476. doi:10.1111/acem.12604
.
- ^ Svenson J, Biedermann M. Ketamine: a unique drug with several potential uses in the prehospital setting. Journal of Paramedic Practice. 2011, 3 (10): 552–556. doi:10.12968/jpar.2011.3.10.552.
- ^ 37.0 37.1 Molero P, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Martin-Santos R, Calvo-Sánchez E, Gutiérrez-Rojas L, Meana JJ. Antidepressant Efficacy and Tolerability of Ketamine and Esketamine: A Critical Review. CNS Drugs. May 2018, 32 (5): 411–420. PMID 29736744. S2CID 13679905. doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0519-3.
- ^ Sanacora G, Katz R. Ketamine: A Review for Clinicians. Focus (American Psychiatric Association Publishing). July 2018, 16 (3): 243–250. PMC 6493090
. PMID 31975918. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20180012.
- ^ 39.0 39.1 Singh I, Morgan C, Curran V, Nutt D, Schlag A, McShane R. Ketamine treatment for depression: opportunities for clinical innovation and ethical foresight. The Lancet. Psychiatry. May 2017, 4 (5): 419–426 [10 September 2018]. PMID 28395988. S2CID 28186580. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30102-5. hdl:10871/30208
. (原始內容存檔於9 March 2019).
- ^ Ghosh S, Sinha JK, Khan T, Devaraju KS, Singh P, Vaibhav K, Gaur P. Pharmacological and Therapeutic Approaches in the Treatment of Epilepsy. Biomedicines //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8146518
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). April 2021, 9 (5): 470. PMC 8146518. PMID 33923061. doi:10.3390/biomedicines9050470
.
- ^ Gomes D, Pimentel J, Bentes C, Aguiar de Sousa D, Antunes AP, Alvarez A, Silva ZC. Consensus Protocol for the Treatment of Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus. Acta Médica Portuguesa https://www.actamedicaportuguesa.com/revista/index.php/amp/article/view/9679
|url=
缺少標題 (幫助). October 2018, 31 (10): 598–605 [2020-02-11]. PMID 30387431. doi:10.20344/amp.9679. (原始內容存檔於2020-08-29).
- ^ Rosati A, De Masi S, Guerrini R. Ketamine for Refractory Status Epilepticus: A Systematic Review. CNS Drugs. November 2018, 32 (11): 997–1009. PMID 30232735. S2CID 52302073. doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0569-6.
- ^ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Jat KR, Chawla D. Ketamine for management of acute exacerbations of asthma in children. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. November 2012, 11 (11): CD009293. PMC 6483733
. PMID 23152273. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009293.pub2. 已忽略未知參數
|collaboration=
(幫助) - ^ Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet. November 2010, 376 (9752): 1558–65. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.690.1283
. PMID 21036393. S2CID 5667719. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6.
- ^ 45.0 45.1 Strayer RJ, Nelson LS. Adverse events associated with ketamine for procedural sedation in adults. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. November 2008, 26 (9): 985–1028. PMID 19091264. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.12.005. (原始內容存檔於2017-09-08).
- ^ 46.0 46.1 Anand A, Charney DS, Oren DA, Berman RM, Hu XS, Cappiello A, Krystal JH. Attenuation of the neuropsychiatric effects of ketamine with lamotrigine: support for hyperglutamatergic effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists. Arch Gen Psychiatry. March 2000, 57 (3): 270–6. PMID 10711913. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.3.270
.
- ^ 47.0 47.1 Krupitsky EM, Burakov AM, Romanova TN, Grinenko NI, Grinenko AY, Fletcher J, Petrakis IL, Krystal JH. Attenuation of ketamine effects by nimodipine pretreatment in recovering ethanol dependent men: psychopharmacologic implications of the interaction of NMDA and L-type calcium channel antagonists. Neuropsychopharmacology. December 2001, 25 (6): 936–47. PMID 11750186. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00346-3
.
- ^ Barrett W, Buxhoeveden M, Dhillon S. Ketamine: a versatile tool for anesthesia and analgesia. Current Opinion in Anesthesiology. October 2020, 33 (5): 633–638. PMID 32826629. S2CID 221236545. doi:10.1097/ACO.0000000000000916.
- ^ Acevedo-Diaz EE, Cavanaugh GW, Greenstein D, Kraus C, Kadriu B, Zarate CA, Park LT. Comprehensive assessment of side effects associated with a single dose of ketamine in treatment-resistant depression. J Affect Disord. February 2020, 263: 568–575. PMC 8457026
. PMID 31791675. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.028.
- ^ Smith HS. Ketamine-induced urologic insult (KIUI). Pain Physician. 2010, 13 (6): E343–6. PMID 21102971. doi:10.36076/ppj.2010/13/E343
.
- ^ Wong GL, Tam YH, Ng CF, Chan AW, Choi PC, Chu WC, Lai PB, Chan HL, Wong VW. Liver injury is common among chronic abusers of ketamine. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology. October 2014, 12 (10): 1759–62.e1. PMID 24534547. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2014.01.041.
- ^ Castellani D, Pirola GM, Gubbiotti M, Rubilotta E, Gudaru K, Gregori A, Dellabella M. What urologists need to know about ketamine-induced uropathy: A systematic review. Neurourol Urodyn. April 2020, 39 (4): 1049–1062. PMID 32212278. S2CID 214643776. doi:10.1002/nau.24341.
- ^ Ahamed AN, Yahya AA. Chronic biliary colic associated with ketamine abuse. International Medical Case Reports Journal //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4898409
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). 2 June 2016, 9: 135–137. PMC 4898409. PMID 27330331. doi:10.2147/IMCRJ.S100648
.
- ^ Joseph P, Binu R, Sebastian T, Fahmy H. Multiorgan Dysfunction Related to Chronic Ketamine Abuse. Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings. 11 December 2017, 27 (3): 223–225. PMC 4059572
. PMID 24982568. doi:10.1080/08998280.2014.11929117.
- ^ Jansen K. Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. 2001: 122. ISBN 978-0-9660019-3-8.
- ^ Peinkhofer C, Dreier JP, Kondziella D. Semiology and Mechanisms of Near-Death Experiences. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. July 2019, 19 (9): 62. PMID 31352520. S2CID 198965307. doi:10.1007/s11910-019-0983-2.
- ^ Martial C, Cassol H, Charland-Verville V, Pallavicini C, Sanz C, Zamberlan F, Vivot RM, Erowid F, Erowid E, Laureys S, Greyson B, Tagliazucchi E. Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports. Consciousness and Cognition. March 2019, 69: 52–69. PMID 30711788. S2CID 73432875. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011. hdl:2268/231971
.
- ^ Morgan CJ, Muetzelfeldt L, Curran HV. Consequences of chronic ketamine self-administration upon neurocognitive function and psychological wellbeing: a 1-year longitudinal study. Addiction. January 2010, 105 (1): 121–33. PMID 19919593. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02761.x.
- ^ Hui TW, Short TG, Hong W, Suen T, Gin T, Plummer J. Additive interactions between propofol and ketamine when used for anesthesia induction in female patients. Anesthesiology. March 1995, 82 (3): 641–8. PMID 7879932. S2CID 24005549. doi:10.1097/00000542-199503000-00005
.
- ^ Hong W, Short TG, Hui TW. Hypnotic and anesthetic interactions between ketamine and midazolam in female patients. Anesthesiology. December 1993, 79 (6): 1227–32. PMID 8267198. S2CID 12246068. doi:10.1097/00000542-199312000-00013
.
- ^ Krystal JH, Madonick S, Perry E, Gueorguieva R, Brush L, Wray Y, Belger A, D'Souza DC. Potentiation of low dose ketamine effects by naltrexone: potential implications for the pharmacotherapy of alcoholism. Neuropsychopharmacology. August 2006, 31 (8): 1793–800. PMID 16395307. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300994
.
- ^ Handa F, Tanaka M, Nishikawa T, Toyooka H. Effects of oral clonidine premedication on side effects of intravenous ketamine anesthesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Anesth. February 2000, 12 (1): 19–24. PMID 10773503. doi:10.1016/s0952-8180(99)00131-2.
- ^ 63.0 63.1 Andrade C. Ketamine for Depression, 5: Potential Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Drug Interactions. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. July 2017, 78 (7): e858–e861. PMID 28858450. doi:10.4088/JCP.17f11802
.
- ^ Peltoniemi MA, Hagelberg NM, Olkkola KT, Saari TI. Ketamine: A Review of Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Anesthesia and Pain Therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet. September 2016, 55 (9): 1059–77. PMID 27028535. S2CID 5078489. doi:10.1007/s40262-016-0383-6.
- ^ Zanos P, Gould TD. Mechanisms of ketamine action as an antidepressant. Molecular Psychiatry. April 2018, 23 (4): 801–811. PMC 5999402
. PMID 29532791. doi:10.1038/mp.2017.255.
- ^ Zanos P, Thompson SM, Duman RS, Zarate CA, Gould TD. Convergent Mechanisms Underlying Rapid Antidepressant Action. CNS Drugs. March 2018, 32 (3): 197–227. PMC 6005380
. PMID 29516301. doi:10.1007/s40263-018-0492-x.
- ^ Tyler MW, Yourish HB, Ionescu DF, Haggarty SJ. Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Ketamine. ACS Chemical Neuroscience. June 2017, 8 (6): 1122–1134. PMID 28418641. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00074.
- ^ 68.0 68.1 Sanacora G, Frye MA, McDonald W, Mathew SJ, Turner MS, Schatzberg AF, Summergrad P, Nemeroff CB. A Consensus Statement on the Use of Ketamine in the Treatment of Mood Disorders. JAMA Psychiatry. April 2017, 74 (4): 399–405. PMID 28249076. S2CID 28320520. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0080.
- ^ Mao J. Opioid-Induced Hyperalgesia. CRC Press. 2016-04-19: 127–. ISBN 978-1-4200-8900-4. (原始內容存檔於2017-09-08).
- ^ Feng N, Vollenweider FX, Minder EI, Rentsch K, Grampp T, Vonderschmitt DJ. Development of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for determination of ketamine in plasma and its application to human samples. Ther. Drug Monit. 17: 95–100, 1995.
- ^ Parkin MC, Turfus SC, Smith NW, Halket JM, Braithwaite RA, Elliott SP, Osselton MD, Cowan DA, Kicman AT. Detection of ketamine and its metabolites in urine by ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chrom. B 876: 137–142, 2008.
- ^ R. Baselt, Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 8th edition, Biomedical Publications, Foster City, CA, 2008, pp. 806–808.
- ^ Bonanno, F. G. Ketamine in war/tropical surgery (a final tribute to the racemic mixture). Injury. 2002-05-01, 33 (4): 323-327 [2025-03-28]. ISSN 0020-1383. PMID 12091028. doi:10.1016/S0020-1383(01)00209-1 (英語).
- ^ Marcia Moore - Journeys into the Bright World. [2009-06-18]. (原始內容存檔於2009-07-16) (英語).
- ^ Ketamine - Schedule III of The Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Anestesiología Mexicana en Internet. [2006-12-22]. (原始內容存檔於2006-12-05).
- ^ Club 'horse' drug to be outlawed. BBC News. 2005-12-28 [2025-01-02]. (原始內容存檔於2009-09-03) (英國英語).
- ^ Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. [2009-06-18]. (原始內容存檔於2011-06-05).
- ^ Berman RM, Cappiello A, Anand A, Oren DA, Heninger GR, Charney DS, Krystal JH. Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry. February 2000, 47 (4): 351–4. PMID 10686270. S2CID 43438286. doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00230-9.
- ^ Chaffrey J. Yale Researchers Study Potential Treatment for Depression in Patients With Parkinson's Disease. NBC Connecticut. 2022-03-16 [2022-03-19]. (原始內容存檔於2022-03-19).
- ^ Dhir A. Investigational drugs for treating major depressive disorder. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs. January 2017, 26 (1): 9–24. PMID 27960559. S2CID 45232796. doi:10.1080/13543784.2017.1267727.
- ^ Grinspoon P. Ketamine for treatment-resistant depression: When and where is it safe?. Harvard Health. 9 August 2022 [2022-09-06]. (原始內容存檔於2022-08-31) (英語).
- ^ New Hope for Treatment-Resistant Depression: Guessing Right on Ketamine. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). 2019-08-13 [2022-09-09-06]. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-10) (英語).
- ^ Pérez-Esparza R. Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: a New Advocate. Revista de Investigacion Clinica. 2018, 70 (2): 65–67. PMID 29718013. doi:10.24875/RIC.18002501
.
- ^ Ferreira SR, Machado AR, Furtado LF, Gomes JH, de Almeida RM, de Oliveira Mendes T, Maciel VN, Barbosa FS, Carvalho LM, Bueno LL, Bartholomeu DC, de Araújo JV, Rabelo EM, de Pádua RM, Pimenta LP, Fujiwara RT. Ketamine can be produced by Pochonia chlamydosporia: an old molecule and a new anthelmintic?. Parasites & Vectors //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7574484
|PMC=
缺少標題 (幫助). October 2020, 13 (1): 527. PMC 7574484. PMID 33081837. doi:10.1186/s13071-020-04402-w
.
- ^ Robertson SA, Taylor PM. Pain management in cats—past, present and future. Part 2. Treatment of pain—clinical pharmacology. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery. October 2004, 6 (5): 321–33. PMC 10822209
. PMID 15363764. S2CID 25572412. doi:10.1016/j.jfms.2003.10.002.
- ^ Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice. November 2008, 38 (6): 1187–203, v. PMID 18954680. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002.
- ^ Stunkard JA, Miller JC. An outline guide to general anesthesia in exotic species. Veterinary Medicine, Small Animal Clinician. September 1974, 69 (9): 1181–6. PMID 4604091.
- ^ Riviere JE, Papich MG. Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. John Wiley & Sons. 2009: 200 [2021-12-26]. ISBN 978-1-118-68590-7. (原始內容存檔於2023-02-08).
- ^ Standard Operating Procedure No. 1 Anesthesia and Analgesia in Rodents, Washington College: 1–2, 2012 [2015-11-27], (原始內容存檔於2013-08-04)